Diabetic Retinopathy: Pathogenesis & Clinical
Pathogenesis
ð Key concept
(high-yield)
- Chronic
hyperglycemia = driver āļŦāļĨัāļ
- āļāļģāđāļŦ้āđāļิāļ 2 āļāļĨāđāļāļŦāļĨัāļāđāļ retina
1.
↑
vascular permeability →
macular edema
2.
capillary occlusion → ischemia → neovascularization
1. Pathophysiology overview
- DR āđāļ็āļ neurovascular unit disease (āđāļĄ่āđāļ่āđāļ่
microangiopathy)
- āđāļิāļāļāļēāļ interaction āļāļāļ:
- metabolic
pathways
- inflammation
- microvascular
injury
- neurodegeneration
2. Early mechanisms (āļ่āļāļāļĄี lesion āđāļŦ้āđāļŦ็āļ)
Metabolic / biochemical pathways
- Polyol
pathway (sorbitol accumulation)
- Protein
kinase C activation
- Advanced
glycation end products (AGEs)
→ āļāļģāđāļŦ้: - oxidative
stress
- endothelial
dysfunction
- ↑ vascular permeability
Neurovascular dysfunction
- microglial
activation, cytokines, complement
- blood-retinal
barrier breakdown
- ERG āļāļ abnormal āđāļ้āļ่āļāļ clinical DR
3. Structural retinal changes
- Pericyte
loss (hallmark)
- Basement
membrane thickening
- Microaneurysm
formation
- capillary
closure → ischemia
→ downstream: - macular
edema
- neovascularization
- tractional
retinal detachment
4. Microvascular & hemodynamic changes
- Leukostasis
(early finding) →
endothelial injury
- Microthrombosis
→ capillary occlusion
- Loss
of autoregulation
→ ↑ retinal blood flow → shear stress → leakage → edema
5. Key molecular pathways
5.1 Advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
- cross-link
collagen →
microvascular damage
- activate
RAGE → ↑ ROS → inflammation
5.2 Polyol pathway
- sorbitol
accumulation → osmotic
stress
- ↓ NADPH → oxidative stress
- affect
Na/K ATPase + signaling pathways
6. Growth factors (late stage)
ðī VEGF (vascular
endothelial growth factor) (most important)
- induced
by hypoxia
- ↑ vascular permeability
- ↑ neovascularization
ð IGF-1
- synergize
with VEGF
- associated
with progression to proliferative DR
Others
- Erythropoietin
- PDGF,
FGF, angiopoietin-Tie2
→ contribute to angiogenesis
7. Clinical correlation
Macular edema
- āļāļēāļ vascular leakage
- mechanism:
VEGF + hemodynamic stress
Proliferative DR (PDR)
- āļāļēāļ retinal ischemia → VEGF surge
- complications:
- vitreous
hemorrhage
- tractional
RD
- neovascular
glaucoma
8. Glycemic control (very high yield)
- DCCT
/ UKPDS
- āļĨāļ A1C →
āļĨāļ DR āļāļĒ่āļēāļāļĄีāļัāļĒāļŠāļģāļัāļ
- ↓ A1C 1% → ↓ DR ~37%
- A1C
<7% → progression āļ่āļģāļĄāļēāļ
ð āđāļ่:
- rapid
glucose lowering → early
worsening DR
9. Risk modifiers
āđāļิ่āļĄ risk
- duration
DM
- poor
glycemic control
- hypertension
- nephropathy
(albuminuria)
- genetic
susceptibility
Protective / modifying factors
- anti-angiogenic
factors (āđāļ่āļ PEDF)
- RBP3
(āļĨāļ VEGF + inflammation)
- genetic
resistance
10. Clinical pearls
- DR āđāļĢิ่āļĄāļāļēāļ functional + molecular change āļ่āļāļ
structural lesion
- pericyte
loss + microaneurysm = earliest histologic change
- VEGF
= target āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļāļ treatment (anti-VEGF)
- macular
edema ≠ āļ้āļāļāļĄี PDR
- DR āđāļĨāļ° nephropathy share pathogenesis → screen āļĢ่āļ§āļĄāļัāļ
|
ð Bottom line
|
Classification, Clinical features & Natural history
ð Key points
- DR āđāļ็āļ leading cause āļāļāļ vision loss āđāļāļ§ัāļĒāļāļģāļāļēāļ
- āļĄัāļ asymptomatic āļāļ late stage
- visual
loss āđāļิāļāļāļēāļ:
- macular
edema (ME)
- vitreous
hemorrhage
- tractional
retinal detachment
- neovascular
glaucoma
1. Classification (āļŠāļģāļัāļāļĄāļēāļāđāļ clinical
decision)
1.1 Nonproliferative DR (NPDR)
āļĨัāļāļĐāļāļ°
- microaneurysm
(earliest sign)
- dot/blot
hemorrhage
- hard
exudate
- cotton
wool spots
- venous
beading / IRMA
āđāļ่āļ severity
- Mild
→ Moderate → Severe → Very severe
Risk progression →
PDR (1 āļี)
- Mild:
~5%
- Moderate:
~15%
- Severe:
~52%
- Very
severe: ~75%
ð Clinical implication: āļāļģāļŦāļāļ follow-up interval + timing of treatment
1.2 Proliferative DR (PDR)
Definition
- āļĄี neovascularization (NVD/NVE)
Complications
- vitreous
hemorrhage
- fibrosis
→ tractional RD
- neovascular
glaucoma
ðī High-risk PDR (āļ้āļāļ treat āđāļĢ็āļ§)
- NVD
> 1/3–1/2 disc
- NVD
(disc) + hemorrhage
- NVE (elsewhere)
+ hemorrhage
ð untreated → 60% severe vision loss in 5 āļี
1.3 Diabetic Macular Edema (DME)
- āđāļิāļāđāļ้āļุāļ stage
- āđāļ่āļ:
- center-involving
- non-center
ð cause āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļāļ
vision loss āđāļ NPDR
2. Clinical manifestations
Early
- āļĄัāļ āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļēāļāļēāļĢ
Late symptoms
- blurred
vision (DME)
- floaters
(vitreous hemorrhage)
- curtain-like
vision loss (RD)
- acute
vision drop
3. Ophthalmologic findings (high yield)
Early lesions
- microaneurysm
- hard
exudate (lipid leakage)
- capillary
leakage
Ischemia-related
- cotton
wool spots (nerve fiber infarct)
- venous
beading
- IRMA
Advanced
- neovascularization
- vitreous
hemorrhage
- tractional
RD
4. Pathophysiologic-clinical link
2 mechanisms āļŠāļģāļัāļ:
1.
↑
permeability → edema
(DME)
2.
vascular occlusion → ischemia → VEGF → neovascularization (PDR)
5. Natural history
Type 1 DM
- āđāļĢิ่āļĄ DR: 3–5 āļีāļŦāļĨัāļ diagnosis
- ~āđāļืāļāļāļุāļāļāļāļĄี DR āđāļ 15–20 āļี
Type 2 DM
- 50–80%
āļĄี DR āđāļ 20 āļี
- āļāļēāļāļāļāļĄีāļั้āļāđāļ่ diagnosis (delay diagnosis)
6. Impact of glycemic control
Intensive control
- ↓ incidence + ↓ severity DR
- āļĄี legacy effect (benefit āļĒāļēāļ§)
⚠️ Early worsening
- āļ่āļ§āļāđāļĢāļāļāļāļ intensive therapy
- mechanism:
- ↓ plasma volume
- ↑ IGF-1
→ āļ้āļāļ monitor āđāļāļĨ้āļิāļ
7. Special situations
ðΰ Pregnancy
- ↑ risk progression (16–85%)
- risk
↑ āļ้āļē:
- baseline
DR āļĄāļēāļ
- A1C
āļŠูāļ
- āļĨāļ A1C āđāļĢ็āļ§
ð āļ้āļāļ screen
āļ่āļāļĒāļึ้āļ + follow postpartum 1 āļี
8. Systemic association
- DR =
marker āļāļāļ microvascular + macrovascular disease
- ↑ risk:
- MI
- stroke
- CVD
death
- PDR → risk āļŠูāļāļŠุāļ
9. Clinical pearls (āļŠāļāļ/āđāļ้āļāļēāļāļāļĢิāļ)
- DR āļĄัāļ āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļēāļāļēāļĢ → āļ้āļāļ screen
- microaneurysm
= earliest clinical sign
- DME
= cause āļŦāļĨัāļāļāļāļ visual loss āđāļ NPDR
- PDR
= sight-threatening stage
- severity
āļāļāļ NPDR = predictor āļāļāļ progression
- DR
severity → correlate āļัāļ systemic disease burden
|
ð Bottom line
|
āđāļĄ่āļĄีāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāđāļŦ็āļ:
āđāļŠāļāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļิāļāđāļŦ็āļ